Introduction To Python: Part 4

Today we’ll be clearing up the differences between lists and tuples. This will lead us to a discussion of the concept of mutability in Python. The differences between mutable and immutable data types are important to understanding

Lists and Tuples

The other sequence types.

Lists

We’ve see the list (py3) before. And we know that we can construct them using the list object literal: [].

In [1]: []
Out[1]: []
In [2]: [1,2,3]
Out[2]: [1, 2, 3]
In [3]: [1, 'a', 7.34]
Out[3]: [1, 'a', 7.34]

We can also call the list type object. It can accept an optional argument which is any sequence type:

In [6]: list()
Out[6]: []
In [7]: list(range(4))
Out[7]: [0, 1, 2, 3]
In [8]: list('abc')
Out[8]: ['a', 'b', 'c']

A list is a heterogenous, ordered collection. This means it can contain values of different types. Each element in a list is a value. Even if you add a name to a list, it is the value the name is bound to that is actually stored. And like all values, the values in a list can have none, one, or more than one name bound to them. When you store a value in a list, it creates a reference to that value.

In [9]: name = u'Brian'
In [10]: a = [1, 2, name]
In [11]: b = [3, 4, name]
In [12]: a[2]
Out[12]: u'Brian'
In [13]: b[2]
Out[13]: u'Brian'
In [14]: a[2] is b[2]
Out[14]: True

Even if you modify or delete the name for that value, the list you added it to still maintains a reference to the previous value.

In [15]: name = 42
In [16]: a[2]
Out[16]: u'Brian'
In [17]: del name
In [18]: a[2]
Out[16]: u'Brian'

Tuples

We’ve also seen the tuple (py3) before. We know that we can construct them using the tuple object literal: ().

In [16]: ()
Out[16]: ()
In [17]: (1, 2)
Out[17]: (1, 2)
In [18]: (1, 'a', 7.65)
Out[18]: (1, 'a', 7.65)
In [19]: (1,)
Out[19]: (1,)

As it turns out, though, you don’t even need the parentheses to construct a tuple. Separating a number of literal values, or bound names, with commas is enough:

In [161]: t = (1,2,3)
In [162]: t
Out[162]: (1, 2, 3)
In [163]: t = 1,2,3
In [164]: t
Out[164]: (1, 2, 3)
In [165]: type(t)
Out[165]: tuple

In fact, the comma is actually the only required part. If you try to construct a tuple with one element without a comma, it will not turn out as you expect:

In [156]: t = ( 3 )
In [157]: type(t)
Out[157]: int
In [158]: t = (3,)
In [160]: type(t)
Out[160]: tuple

You can also construct a tuple by calling the tuple type object. It accepts an optional argument which can be any sequence type. The sequence will be converted to a tuple:

In [20]: tuple()
Out[20]: ()
In [21]: tuple(range(4))
Out[21]: (0, 1, 2, 3)
In [22]: tuple('garbanzo')
Out[22]: ('g', 'a', 'r', 'b', 'a', 'n', 'z', 'o')

A tuple is a heterogenous, ordered collection. This means it can contain values of different types. Each element in a tuple is a value. Even if you add a name to a tuple, it is the value the name is bound to that is actually stored. And like all values, the values in a list can have none, one, or more than one name bound to them. When you store a value in a tuple, it creates a reference to that value.

So if the list and the tuple are essentially identical, why does Python have both?

Mutability

Presto change-o

image from flickr by illuminaut, (CC by-nc-sa)

Mutability in Python

All objects in Python fall into one of two camps: mutable and immutable. Objects which are mutable may be changed in place. Objects which are immutable may not be changed.

The Types We Know

Here’s a table showing the types we know so far, split into the two categories of mutable and immutable

Mutable Immutable
List Unicode
Dict String
Set Integer Float Tuple FrozenSet

Lists are mutable. Try this out:

In [28]: food = [u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham']

In [29]: food
Out[29]: [u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham']

In [30]: food[1] = u'raspberries'

In [31]: food
Out[31]: [u'spam', u'raspberries', u'ham']

Tuples, on the other hand, are immutable. If we try the same thing with a tuple:

In [32]: food = (u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham')
In [33]: food
Out[33]: (u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham')
In [34]: food[1] = u'raspberries'
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError                                 Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-34-0c3401794933> in <module>()
----> 1 food[1] = u'raspberries'

TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment

We must be aware of the mutability of the types we use when binding values. For example, consider this short program:

In [36]: original = [1, 2, 3]
In [37]: altered = original
In [38]: for i in range(len(original)):
   ....:     if True:
   ....:         altered[i] += 1
   ....:

What is the result of running this code?

In [39]: altered
Out[39]: [2, 3, 4]

In [40]: original
Out[40]: [2, 3, 4]

First we bind the symbol original to the list containing 1, 2 and 3. Next, we bind the symbol altered. But to what?

Remember that we only ever bind names to values. In [37] above, we are binding altered to the value that original is bound to. In other words, both symbols are bound to the same value.

There are other potential gotchas involving mutability. Consider the follow example of code. It looks like a quick way to set up a bunch of bins for us to sort our words into.

In [13]: bins = [ [] ] * 5
In [14]: bins
Out[14]: [[], [], [], [], []]
In [15]: words = [u'one', u'three', u'rough', u'sad', u'goof']
In [16]: for word in words:
   ....:     bins[len(word)-1].append(word)
   ....:

But in fact, it’s a deadly trap. We are concatenating together a list five times. That list contains one list. The new list contains that same one list... five times!

In [65]: bins
Out[65]:
[[u'one', u'three', u'rough', u'sad', u'goof'],
 [u'one', u'three', u'rough', u'sad', u'goof'],
 [u'one', u'three', u'rough', u'sad', u'goof'],
 [u'one', u'three', u'rough', u'sad', u'goof'],
 [u'one', u'three', u'rough', u'sad', u'goof']]

We must also avoid using mutable objects as default values for functions:

In [71]: def accumulator(count, list=[]):
   ....:     for i in range(count):
   ....:         list.append(i)
   ....:     return list
   ....:

When the def statement is executed, the value of the default is baked into the constructed function object. This means that the default value any time the function is called is a single, mutable object. So the first time we call the function:

In [72]: accumulator(5)
Out[72]: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]

And the second time?

In [73]: accumulator(7)
Out[73]: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Mutable Sequence Methods

We’ve seen a number of operations supported by all sequence types. Mutable sequences (the List), have a number of other methods that are used to change the list.

We can find all these in the standard library documentation for Mutable Sequence Types (py3)

Assignment

Using the subscription operator in combination with assignment allows us to change a single element within a list. This operates pretty much the same as arrays in most languages:

In [100]: list = [1, 2, 3]
In [101]: list[2] = 10
In [102]: list
Out[102]: [1, 2, 10]

Growing the List

We can grow a list using one of three methods.

The .append() method adds a single item to the end of the list.

In [74]: food = [u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham']
In [75]: food.append(u'sushi')
In [76]: food
Out[76]: [u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham', u'sushi']

The .insert() method adds a single item at a given position in the list.

In [77]: food.insert(0, u'beans')
In [78]: food
Out[78]: [u'beans', u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham', u'sushi']

The .extend() method takes a sequence as its argument, and adds all the items in it to the end of the list.

In [79]: food.extend([u'bread', u'water'])
In [80]: food
Out[80]: [u'beans', u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham', u'sushi', u'bread', u'water']

Remember, we can pass any sequence type as an argument to extend. Sometimes this has unexpected results:

In [85]: food
Out[85]: [u'beans', u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham', u'sushi', u'bread', u'water']
In [86]: food.extend(u'spaghetti')
In [87]: food
Out[87]:
[u'beans', u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham', u'sushi', u'bread', u'water',
 u's', u'p', u'a', u'g', u'h', u'e', u't', u't', u'i']

Shrinking the List

There are also a number of methods available that allow us to shrink a list.

The .pop() method removes an item from the end of a list and returns its value. If the optional index argument is passed, the item at that index is removed and returned instead. If the method is called on an empty list, or the provided index argument is out of range, this causes an IndexError.

In [203]: food = ['spam', 'eggs', 'ham', 'toast']
In [204]: food.pop()
Out[204]: 'toast'
In [205]: food.pop(0)
Out[205]: 'spam'
In [206]: food
Out[206]: ['eggs', 'ham']

The .remove() method removes the value provided as its argument from the list. If that value is not present in the list, it causes a ValueError.

In [207]: food.remove('ham')
In [208]: food
Out[208]: ['eggs']

We can even remove entire chunks of a list using the del keyword on a slice of the list:

In [92]: nums = range(10)
In [93]: nums
Out[93]: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
In [94]: del nums[1:6:2]
In [95]: nums
Out[95]: [0, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9]
In [96]: del nums[-3:]
In [97]: nums
Out[97]: [0, 2, 4, 6]

Copying Lists

We can create copies of list objects in Python using slicing. If we provide no arguments to the slice operator, the result is to create a copy of the entire list:

In [227]: food = ['spam', 'eggs', 'ham', 'sushi']
In [228]: some_food = food[1:3]
In [229]: some_food[1] = 'bacon'
In [230]: food
Out[230]: ['spam', 'eggs', 'ham', 'sushi']
In [231]: some_food
Out[231]: ['eggs', 'bacon']

In [232]: food
Out[232]: ['spam', 'eggs', 'ham', 'sushi']
In [233]: food2 = food[:]
In [234]: food is food2
Out[234]: False

Making a copy this way results in what we call a shallow copy. More about this in a bit.

Copies can be useful in solving problems. Consider the following common pattern:

for x in somelist:
    if should_be_removed(x):
        somelist.remove(x)

This looks benign enough. But changing a list while you are iterating over it can be the cause of some pernicious bugs. For example, try this out:

In [121]: lst = range(10)
In [122]: lst
Out[122]: [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
In [123]: for x in lst:
   .....:     lst.remove(x)
   .....:

At this point, what do we expect the list object to contain?

In [124]: lst
Out[124]: [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]

We can use a copy of the list to solve this problem. By iterating over the copy of the list while mutating the original, we get the results we wanted:

In [126]: lst = range(10)
In [127]: for x in lst[:]:
   .....:     lst.remove(x)
   .....:
In [128]: lst
Out[128]: []

We’ve talked about this: mutable objects can have their contents changed in place. Immutable objects can not. This has implications when you have a container with mutable objects in it:

In [28]: list1 = [ [1,2,3], ['a','b'] ]

We can make a copy of this list. And we can prove that they are different lists.

In [29]: list2 = list1[:]
In [30]: list2 is list1
Out[30]: False

Now, what if we set an element to a new value?

In [31]: list1[0] = [5,6,7]

In [32]: list1
Out[32]: [[5, 6, 7], ['a', 'b']]

In [33]: list2
Out[33]: [[1, 2, 3], ['a', 'b']]

The copied lists are independent of each-other. But what if we mutate an element?

In [34]: list1[1].append('c')

In [35]: list1
Out[35]: [[5, 6, 7], ['a', 'b', 'c']]

In [36]: list2
Out[36]: [[1, 2, 3], ['a', 'b', 'c']]

Mutating an element in one list mutated the one in the other list. Why is that?

In [38]: list1[1] is list2[1]
Out[38]: True

The lists are different objects, but the list elements are the same object!

This is known as a “shallow” copy. Python doesn’t want to copy more than it needs to. So in this case, it makes a new list, but does not make copies of the contents.

This holds as well for dicts (and any container type). If the elements are immutable, it doesn’t really make a differnce. But be very careful with mutable elements.

The copy module

Most objects have a way to make copies (dict.copy() for instance). But if they do no, you can use the copy module to make one.

In [39]: import copy

In [40]: list3 = copy.copy(list2)

In [41]: list3
Out[41]: [[1, 2, 3], ['a', 'b', 'c']]

Copies made by copy.copy are still shallow. But the copy module also offers copy.deepcopy. This function recurses through the object, making copies of everything as it goes. The result is a copy that is entirely independent from the original, all the way down.

In [42]: list4 = copy.deepcopy(list3)
In [43]: list4[0].append(4)
In [44]: list4
Out[44]: [[1, 2, 3, 4], ['a', 'b', 'c']]
In [45]: list3
Out[45]: [[1, 2, 3], ['a', 'b', 'c']]

I happened on this thread on stack overflow The OP is pretty confused – can you sort it out? Make sure you understand the difference between a reference, a shallow copy, and a deep copy.

Miscellaneous List Methods

These methods change a list in place and are not available on immutable sequence types. Because these methods mutate the list in place, they have a return value of None

The .reverse() method reverses a list in place:

In [129]: food = [u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham']
In [130]: food.reverse()
In [131]: food
Out[131]: [u'ham', u'eggs', u'spam']

The .sort() method sorts the list in ascending order:

In [132]: food.sort()
In [133]: food
Out[133]: [u'eggs', u'ham', u'spam']

If we prefer a different order for your sorting, we can supply the optional key parameter. The argument must be a function which takes one parameter. It will be called for each item in the list. The value it returns will be used as the value on which to sort the list:

In [137]: def third_letter(string):
   .....:     return string[2]
   .....:
In [138]: food.sort(key=third_letter)
In [139]: food
Out[139]: [u'spam', u'eggs', u'ham']

If we would rather create a sorted copy of our list, we can make use of the sorted <python2:sorted() builtin (py3). This function takes a list as its first argument. The remaining arguments are the same as for the list.sort method. The function returns a new list which has been sorted, and leaves the original unmodified.

List Performance

Lists are optimized for access, and for operations on the end of the list. Operating on the middle or front of the list is not fast. Nor is membership.

  • indexing is fast and constant time: O(1)
  • x in s proportional to n: O(n)
  • visiting all is proportional to n: O(n)
  • operating on the end of list is fast and constant time: O(1)
    • append(), pop()
  • operating on the front (or middle) of the list depends on n: O(n)
    • pop(0), insert(0, v)
    • But, reversing is fast. Also, collections.deque

Choosing Lists or Tuples

Here are a few guidelines on when to choose a list or a tuple:

  • If it needs to mutable: list
  • If it needs to be immutable: tuple
    • (safety when passing to a function)

Otherwise the choice is really down to taste and convention. If you are contributing to an existing codebase, look around you and do what you see done.

Also consider the following thoughts:

Lists are Collections (homogeneous): – contain values of the same type – simplifies iterating, sorting, etc

tuples are mixed types: – Group multiple values into one logical thing – Kind of like simple C structs.

And a few final guidelines:

  • Do the same operation to each element?
    • list
  • Small collection of values which make a single logical item?
    • tuple
  • To document that these values won’t change?
    • tuple
  • Build it iteratively?
    • list
  • Transform, filter, etc?
    • list

Exception Handling

Exceptions in Python are used to control program flow when things go wrong. To handle exceptions, we use the try (py3). This keyword forms another branching structure, like if ... else:

try:
    do_something()
    f = open('missing.txt')
    process(f)   # never called if file missing
except IOError:
    print("couldn't open missing.txt")

If an error occurs as a result of any of the statements in the try block, that error will be compared with the exception class specified in the except (py3) block. If the exception raised is an instance of, or an instance of a subclass of that exception class, the statements in the except block will be executed.

Using the except keyword without providing a comparison exception class is called a bare except. This is considered very bad style, as it can hide problems in our code. It’s not really better to use the Exception class as the comparison either. That is the base class for all Python exceptions, so the end result is the same.

Warning

Never Do this:

try:
    do_something()
    f = open('missing.txt')
    process(f)   # never called if file missing
except:
    print("couldn't open missing.txt")

And this is no better, really:

try:
    do_something()
    f = open('missing.txt')
    process(f)   # never called if file missing
except Exception:
    print("couldn't open missing.txt")

In programming there are two approaches to dealing with code that might cause errors to occur. The first is to test first to see if the error will happen, and do something different if it won’t:

do_something()
if os.path.exists('missing.txt'):
    f = open('missing.txt')
    process(f)   # never called if file missing

The second approach is to allow the exceptions to happen, and then handle them when they do:

try:
    f = open('missing.txt')
except IOError:
    deal_with_it()
else:
    process(f)

This latter approach is considered to be more Pythonic. We call this approach EAFP:

it’s Easier to Ask Forgiveness than Permission

—Grace Hopper

It isn’t always that cut-and-dry, but it’s a good starting point. For a more nuanced take on this, you should watch Alex Martelli’s PyCon Talk from 2012

In general, it’s a good idea to allow exceptions to happen. Python provides excellent tracebacks and error messages. They are helpful to developers and even useful to end users. We should only catch exceptions that happen if we can and will do something about them.

The try ... except clause can be extended with an else clause. The code in this block is executed only if no exception occurs. This can be a great way to isolate code that is entirely dependent on the success of the code in the try block.

try:
    do_something()
    f = open('missing.txt')
except IOError:
    print(u"couldn't open missing.txt")
else:
    process(f)

We can also enhance try ... except with a finally clause. The code in this block is executed whether or not an exception handles. This is an opportunity to do tasks that must happen in any case: closing file handles, terminating network sessions, etc.

try:
    do_something()
    f = open('missing.txt')
    process(f)   # never called if file missing
except IOError:
    print(u"couldn't open missing.txt")
finally:
    do_some_clean_up

Note

The try keyword must always be paired with at least one other keyword. The most common pair is the try ... except pairing. You can even add more except clauses to handle different types of errors. But you can omit any except clause if and only if you use a finally clause.

When errors do occur, the exception instances that are raised often have information that can be used in handling the exception. If you want to do so, you can use as in your except clause to bind the exception instance to a symbol. Then in the except block, you can read attributes of the exception and use the information as you wish:

try:
    do_something()
    f = open('missing.txt')
except IOError as the_error:
    print(the_error)
    the_error.extra_info = "some more information"
    raise

Before the introduction of as in an except statement in Python 2.6, we could achieve this same thing by using a comma to separate the exception instance from the symbol to which it would be bound. This form is still out there in legacy code bases. If dropping support for Python 2.5 and earlier is possible (as it should usually be), you should update this form whenever you see it:

try:
    f = open('missing.txt')
except IOError, the_error:
   print(the_error)

This can be particularly useful when you are handling several different exception types with a single except clause:

except (IOError, BufferError, OSError) as the_error:
    do_something_with(the_error)

When writing code, it can be useful for us to be able to control the exceptions that happen when our code is used. The raise keyword (py3) allows us to create exception instances and throw them.

def divide(a, b):
    if b == 0:
        raise ZeroDivisionError("b can not be zero")
    else:
        return a / b

You can create custom exceptions by sub-classing any of the built-in exception types (py3). However, consider carefully using one of the existing classes instead. There are 32 in Python 2 and 47 in Python 3. Plenty to handle most situations well.

Remember always that in programming exceptions are a form of communications. The kind of exception that is raised tells developers about what went wrong. We should always make an effort to choose the best possible exception class to describe our particular problem.

Consider the example of the Ackermann function we’ve been working on. A user might attempt to call the function while providing non-integers as arguments. We could protect ourselves against this problem like so:

if (not isinstance(m, int)) or (not isinstance(n, int)):
    raise ValueError

But is it the value of the input that is the problem here? Not really. The real issue is the type that was passed. This would be a better communication of the situation:

if (not isinstance(m, int)) or (not isinstance(n, int)):
    raise TypeError

But again, EAFP (Easier to Ask Forgiveness than Permission), should we really be checking in the first place?

Advanced Argument Passing

When defining a function, we can specify only what we need – in any order.

In [150]: from __future__ import print_function
In [151]: def fun(x, y=0, z=0):
   .....:     print(x, y, z, end=" ")
   .....:
In [152]: fun(1, 2, 3)
1 2 3
In [153]: fun(1, z=3)
1 0 3
In [154]: fun(1, z=3, y=2)
1 2 3

One fun feature is that we can use variables as default values.

In [156]: y = 4
In [157]: def fun(x=y):
    print(u"x is: %s" % x)
   .....:
In [158]: fun()
x is: 4

Since defaults are evaluated when a function is defined, once the function object exists, the variable can be changed without altering the function.

In [159]: y = 6
In [160]: fun()
x is: 4

We’ve seen using * and ** for variable parameter lists:

In [10]: def f(*args, **kwargs):
   ....:     print(u"the positional arguments are: %s" % unicode(args))
   ....:     print(u"the optional arguments are: %s" % unicode(kwargs))
   ....:
In [11]: f(2, 3, this=5, that=7)
the positional arguments are: (2, 3)
the optional arguments are: {'this': 5, 'that': 7}

What isn’t immediately apparent from that usage is that internally to a function object, parameters are represented as

  • a tuple of positional arguments
  • a dict of keyword arguments

This has interesting implications. For example, consider the following function:

In [1]: def f(x, y, w=0, h=0):
   ...:     msg = u"position: %s, %s -- shape: %s, %s"
   ...:     print(msg % (x, y, w, h))
   ...:

We can use the same * and ** operators (splat and double-splat) to pass tuples and dicts as arguments:

In [2]: position = (3, 4)
In [3]: size = {'h': 10, 'w': 20}
In [4]: f(*position, **size)
position: 3, 4 -- shape: 20, 10

Remember the string .format() method? It can take keyword arguments if the placeholders in the format string are named.

In [24]: u"My name is {first} {last}".format(last=u"Ewing", first=u"Cris")
Out[24]: u'My name is Cris Ewing'

You can also use a dict with keys and values to accomplish the same thing:

In [25]: d = {u"last": u"Ewing", u"first": u"Cris"}

In [26]: u"My name is {first} {last}".format(**d)
Out[26]: u'My name is Cris Ewing'

Finally, a reminder about using mutable objects as default values for optional parameters. We know the problem with this function:

In [11]: def fun(x, a=[]):
   ....:     a.append(x)
   ....:     print(a)
   ....:

It’s often useful to use a flag value as a default to signal when you want a mutable object to be used:

In [15]: def fun(x, a=None):
   ....:     if a is None:
   ....:         a = []
   ....:     a.append(x)
   ....:     print(a)
In [16]: fun(3)
[3]
In [17]: fun(4)
[4]

Comprehensions

Comprehensions (list, dict and set) allow us to compress loop expressions into a clean syntax. They can also be very efficient because they save the creation of intermediate values. They are one piece of the functional programming story in Python.

List Comprehensions

Consider the following loop structure, a very common pattern:

new_list = []
for variable in a_list:
    new_list.append(expression)

With a list comprehension we can express the same thing in one clean line of code:

new_list = [expression for variable in a_list]

What about nested for loops?

new_list = []
for var in a_list:
    for var2 in a_list2:
        new_list.append(expr)

We can use multiple for clauses in a comprehension to express the same thing:

new_list =  [expr for var in a_list for var2 in a_list2]

We can even use if in a comprehension to account for conditionals in the loop:

new_list = []
for var in a_list:
    if something_is_true:
        new_list.append(expr)

This can also be expressed in a single statement.

new_list = [expr for var in a_list if something_is_true]

Examples

In [341]: [x ** 2 for x in range(3)]
Out[341]: [0, 1, 4]

In [342]: [x + y for x in range(3) for y in range(5, 7)]
Out[342]: [5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8]

In [343]: [x * 2 for x in range(6) if not x % 2]
Out[343]: [0, 4, 8]

[name for name in dir(__builtin__) if "Error" in name]
['ArithmeticError',
 'AssertionError',
 'AttributeError',

Set Comprehensions

We can create comprehensions that build sets, too. Simple loops like this:

new_set = set()
for value in a_sequence:
    new_set.add(value)

can be translated to this:

new_set = {value for value in a_sequence}

Example

How can we find all the vowels in a given string?

In [19]: s = "a not very long string"

In [20]: vowels = set('aeiou')

In [21]: { letter for letter in s if letter in vowels }
Out[21]: {'a', 'e', 'i', 'o'}

As a side note, why do we use set('aeiou') rather than just "aeiou"?

Dict Comprehensions

And of course, you can do comprehensions with dicts too.

A simple loop building a dict

new_dict = {}
for key, value in a_sequence:
    new_dict[key] = value

can be expressed instead like so:

new_dict = { key:value for key, value in a_sequence}

Example

Let’s build a mapping of integers to string templates:

In [22]: {i: "this_{0}".format(i) for i in range(5)}
Out[22]: {0: 'this_0', 1: 'this_1', 2: 'this_2',
          3: 'this_3', 4: 'this_4'}

Could you accomplish the same thing with the dict type object constructor?

Anonymous functions

We can create anonymous functions using the lambda keyword (py3). We call these functions anonymous because they do not require a name. They can only contain an expression. Never a statement. Do you remember the difference between those two?

A lambda function is a python function object, it can be stored in a list or other container.

In [6]: l = [lambda x, y: x + y]

In [7]: l
Out[7]: [<function __main__.<lambda>>]

In [8]: type(l[0])
Out[8]: function

And then you can call them:

In [9]: l[0](3,4)
Out[9]: 7

As it turns out, you can do the same thing with “regular” functions too. They are also first-class objects and can be handled as if they were data:

In [12]: def fun(x,y):
   ....:     return x + y
   ....:
In [13]: l = [fun]
In [14]: type(l[0])
Out[14]: function
In [15]: l[0](3, 4)
Out[15]: 7

Comprehensions and lambdas are tools in the Python toolbox. Using them appropriately can allow us to approach programming in a functional style.

Functional Programming

Python is not primarily a functional language. However, there is nothing to stop you using Python in a functional style. In fact, there are a number of tools that are provided to facilitate just that. We’ve met comprehensions and lambdas above. Here are a few more you can use.

The map function (py3) is used to apply a function to a sequence of objects:

In [23]: lst = [2, 5, 7, 12, 6, 4]
In [24]: def fun(x):
             return x * 2 + 10
In [25]: map(fun, lst)
Out[25]: [14, 20, 24, 34, 22, 18]

But if the function is as small as that, and you aren’t going to use it elsewhere, use a lambda:

In [26]: map(lambda x: x * 2 + 10, lst)
Out[26]: [14, 20, 24, 34, 22, 18]

The filter function (py3) omits items from a sequence using a boolean filter function. The returned list will only contain values for which the function returns True. For example, to get only the even number in a sequence:

In [27]: lst = [2, 5, 7, 12, 6, 4]
In [28]: filter(lambda x: not x % 2, lst)
Out[28]: [2, 12, 6, 4]

The reduce function (py3) reduces a sequence of objects to a single return value. The provided function must take two arguments and return one value. It is called on the first pair in the sequence, then called again with the result and the third item in the sequence, and so on:

For example, to get the sum of a series of integers:

In [30]: l = [2, 5, 7, 12, 6, 4]
In [31]: reduce(lambda x, y: x + y, l)
Out[31]: 36

Or to get the product:

In [32]: reduce(lambda x,y: x*y, l)
Out[32]: 20160

You might ask (and many have), couldn’t we do all of this with comprehensions? The answer is an unambiguous yes:

In [33]: [x + 2 + 10 for x in l]
Out[33]: [14, 17, 19, 24, 18, 16]
In [34]: [x for x in l if not x % 2]
Out[34]: [2, 12, 6, 4]

The exception of course is reduce, but BDFL Guido Van Rossum has been known to assert that almost all uses of reduce really just boil down to sum (py3) anyway.

Comprehensions, lambdas, and map, filter, and reduce are functional programming tools. Historically speaking, map, filter, and reduce predate comprehensions. There are those who prefer that syntax. In addition, the map-reduce algorithm is a big concept these days. It’s often used to manage the processing of large amounts of data in parallel. It’s good to be aware of these tools in Python and understand how they work.

One final nifty trick with lambda functions. Lambdas can, of course, use keyword arguments. And if you remember, the default values for keyword arguments are evaluated when a function is defined.

This combination turns out to be pretty handy at times:

In [186]: l = []
In [187]: for i in range(3):
   .....:     l.append(lambda x, e=i: x**e)
   .....:
In [189]: for f in l:
   .....:     print(f(3))
1
3
9